Exclusive Citizenship and the Production of “Bare Life”: A Critique of Liberal Theories of Nationality from the Perspective of Syrian Kurdish Experience

Document Type : Original Article

Author

Master in Political Sociology, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran.

10.22126/mps.2025.12272.1067

Abstract

This research provides a critical analysis of the mechanisms of political exclusion in modern states, focusing on the experience of Syrian Kurds following the 1962 census. The fundamental problem is that liberal theories of citizenship, based on universal rights, legalism, and international institutions, are incapable of explaining and preventing the phenomenon of structural statelessness. The main objective of the study is to critique these theories and offer an alternative theoretical framework based on Carl Schmitt's concepts of the "state of exception" and the "moment of decision," as well as Giorgio Agamben's notions of "bare life" and homo sacer. The central research question is how the mechanisms of political exclusion in modern states can be analyzed through the lens of these theories, and why liberal theories fail to explain this phenomenon. The research methodology is based on documentary analysis and a comparative review of political theories. Data were collected from library sources and reports by international human rights organizations. The key findings show that the 1962 census was a clear example of the Schmittian "moment of decision," which led to the exclusion of 120,000 Kurds from the citizenship order and their transformation into Agambenian homo sacer. This process involved the suspension of ordinary citizenship laws, the application of arbitrary criteria, and the creation of friend/enemy distinctions at the domestic level. The study reveals that the state of exception shifted from a temporary condition to a permanent and institutionalized one, and that Kurdish areas functioned as Agambenian "camps." Decree 49 in 2011 represents a clear instance of "inclusive exclusion." The innovation of the research lies in the analytical application of biopolitical concepts to a concrete case and in demonstrating the structural inadequacy of liberal theories. The conclusion presents theoretical and practical solutions for transcending the Westphalian model and moving toward new concepts of citizenship based on human dignity.

Keywords

References

References
Agamben, G. (1998). Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Agamben, G. (2005). State of Exception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Arendt, H. (1951). The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Balakrishnan, G. (2000). The Enemy: An Intellectual Portrait of Carl Schmitt. London: Verso.
Belton, K. A. (2005). “The neglected non-citizen: Statelessness and liberal political theory”. Journal of Global Ethics, 1(2), 175-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449626.2011.558733
Benhabib, S. (2004). The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents and Citizens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511790799.002
Biermann, F., & Boas, I. (2010). “Preparing for a warmer world: Towards a global governance system to protect climate refugees”. Global Environmental Politics, 10(1), 60-88. https://doi.org/10.1162/glep.2010.10.1.60
Brown, W. (2010). Walled States, Waning Sovereignty. New York: Zone Books.
Douzinas, C. (2007). Human Rights and Empire: The Political Philosophy of Cosmopolitanism. London: Routledge.
European Union Agency for Asylum. (2020). Country Guidance: Syria - Kurds. Malta: EUAA. https://euaa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publications/2025-06/2025_Country_Guidance_Syria_interim_guidance.pdf
Gibney, M. J. (2013). The Ethics and Politics of Asylum: Liberal Democracy and the Response to Refugees. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Human Rights Watch. (1996). Syria: The Silenced Kurds. New York: Human Rights Watch. http://dx.doi.org/10.25673/103865
McDowall, D. (2004). A Modern History of the Kurds. London: I.B. Tauris.
Minca, C. (2005). “The return of the camp”. Progress in Human Geography, 29(4), 405-412. https://doi.org/10.1191/0309132505ph557xx
Mouffe, C. (2005). On the Political. London: Routledge.
Murray, A. (2010). Giorgio Agamben. London: Routledge.
Norris, A. (2005). Politics, Metaphysics, and Death: Essays on Giorgio Agamben's Homo Sacer. Durham: Duke University Press.
Schmitt, C. (1985). Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Schmitt, C. (2007). The Concept of the Political. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Shachar, A. (2009). The Birthright Lottery: Citizenship and Global Inequality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Stansfield, G. (2007). Iraq: People, History, Politics. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Syrians for Truth and Justice. (2022). Statelessness in Syria: An Enduring Dilemma. Damascus: STJ. https://stj-sy.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Statelessness-in-Syria_An-Enduring-Dilemma.pdf
Tejel, J. (2009). Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society. London: Routledge.
UNHCR. (2022). Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2021. Geneva: UNHCR. https://www.unhcr.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/27/2022/06/UNHCR-global-trends-report_2021.pdf
United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. New York: UN Publications. https://www.un.org/en/udhrbook/pdf/udhr_booklet_en_web.pdf
Vanly, I. C. (1992). “The Kurds in Syria and Lebanon”. In P. G. Kreyenbroek & S. Sperl (eds.). The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview. London: Routledge, pp. 143-170. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203993415-11/kurds-syria-lebanon-ismet-ch%C3%A9riff-vanly
Weiss, T. G. (2015). “R2P alive and well after Libya”. Ethics & International Affairs, 25(3), 287-292. https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/cceia/v25i3/f_0022904_18786.pdf
 

Files

History

  • Receive Date: 03 June 2025
  • Revise Date: 06 June 2025
  • Accept Date: 06 June 2025

Share

How to cite

Statistics